1132). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-022-01305-1, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-022-01305-1. Men who place im-portance on conforming to . Although the FGRS scale items assess five categories of feminine discrepant situations, the scale was designed to be used as an overall score to assess how stressful people find feminine gender role discrepant situations (Gillespie & Eisler, 1992). Harrington, A.G., Overall, N.C. & Maxwell, J.A. Chapter 1 Describe a personal experience of intrarole or interrole conflict with respect to gender? Future research could further explore how the findings we observed intersect with the importance of ones female identity. (2000). https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801212465151, Murray, S. L., Griffin, D. W., Rose, P., & Bellavia, G. M. (2003). The multi-level analysis used to assess daily associations between felt-femininity and self-esteem accounts for the small differences in numbers of entries across participants by weighting the final sample estimates based on the reliability of each participants data (i.e., participants with more daily records contribute more to the final estimates; Bolger & Laurenceau, 2013). https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430211432893, Brewster, K. L., & Padavic, I. Upon publication, data to reproduce the results will be made available on the Open Science Framework. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 15(4), 471486. Correspondence to Students were presented with a range of studies to complete each semester, and thus this study was one of many that students could select. Men endorsing traditional masculinity ideology experience dif-ferent forms of gender role strain (i.e., discrepancy strain, dysfunc-tion strain, and trauma strain; Pleck, 1995). The abbreviated MGRS scale is commonly used and has established reliability and validity (McDermott et al., 2017; Swartout et al., 2015). (2003). Role Stress - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics A man who experiences tension in his marriage because he is spending long hours at work b. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00239, Rudman, L. A., Moss-Racusin, C. A., Phelan, J. E., & Nauts, S. (2012). Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. For consistency, when duplicate responses were identified, the second response was deleted, and the first response was retained. The self-reported sexual orientation of our participants was as follows: Heterosexual/Straight 84.2% (n=139), Bisexual 10.3% (n=17), Asexual 1.8% (n=3), Pansexual 1.2% (n=2), Gay or Lesbian .6% (n=1), prefer not to say or other 1.8% (n=3). Women face social pressures to conform to the expectations of traditional feminine gender roles. Although the MGRS scale has not been validated for use in samples of women (Eisler & Skidmore, 1987), and may not have equivalent meaning for women, the MGRS involves common situations which many people (women and men) could find stressful (e.g., Working with people who are brighter than yourself, Getting passed over for a promotion, Having your lover say that she/he is not satisfied). Masculine gender role stress, low relationship power, and aggression toward intimate partners. 66 Citations Abstract Gender-role conflict and strain are part of contemporary society's gender reevaluation. (2021). Participants ranged from 17 to 48years of age (M=22.34, SD=4.66). Masculine gender role stress: Scale development and component factors in the appraisal of stressful situations. Critically, the daily and weekly links between womens feelings of femininity and self-esteem and were not affected by their general tendency to find challenging situations of all types stressful (i.e., not feminine-role specific; captured by MGRS). For example, men may act in stereotypically masculine behaviors, such as aggression, in an attempt to reaffirm . Assessing these kinds of reactions as they occur within relevant contexts in mens daily and weekly lives may be more viable than assessing similar processes within a lab context, which may fail to evoke these types of expressions that emerge across ongoing relationships and could potentially place other participants at risk if enacted in the lab. Focusing on the person-level effects of FGRS across weeks of low versus high femininity, women higher in FGRS experienced lower self-esteem than women lower in FGRS, but this effect was more pronounced on weeks they reported low feelings of femininity (left side of figure: B=.735, t=4.946, 95% CI [1.029, .441], p<.001), relative to weeks their felt-femininity was high (right side of figure: B=.359, t=2.436, 95% CI [.649, .069], p=.016). https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000699, Article Masculinity: Male Gender Role Stress and PTSD - Verywell Mind However, future research should expand on this initial demonstration by identifying the range of specific situations and experiences that can lead to feminine gender role discrepancy strain and lower felt-femininity. Masculine gender role stress and intimate abuse: Effects of gender relevance of conflict situations on mens attributions and affective responses. Summarizing 25 years of research on mens gender role conflict using the Gender Role Conflict Scale: New research paradigms and clinical implications. After completing measures of FGRS, undergraduate women reported their feelings of femininity and self-esteem each day for 10days (Study 1, N=207, 1,881 daily records) or each week for 7weeks (Study 2, N=165, 1,127 weekly records). The affective consequences of threats to masculinity. As in prior use of the FGRS scale, items were averaged to create an overall score of FGRS, with higher scores representing greater FGRS. For example, experiencing lower power in intimate relationships is associated with drops in mens feelings of masculinity, which in turn predicts greater aggressive behavior towards intimate partners (Overall et al., 2016). Rather, it is likely that reciprocal associations occur. Approximately half of the participants were single (44.4%, n=73), with the remainder involved in romantic relationships either dating (45.5%, n=75), cohabiting (6.6%, n=11), or married (3.5%, n=6). Take it like a man: Gender-threatened mens experience of gender role discrepancy, emotion activation, and pain tolerance. Self-regulation of gendered behavior in everyday life. Gender Roles: What Are They? - WebMD This research was funded by the University of Auckland Postgraduate Research Student Support funds awarded to Auguste Harrington. The intraclass correlation for our main model was =.43, p<.001; thus, 43% of the variance in self-esteem can be attributable to differences between people, leaving sufficient variability at both the between- and within-person level to warrant the use of multi-level analyses (e.g., Merlo et al., 2005). The FGRS scale (Gillespie & Eisler, 1992) assesses the degree to which women find these types of feminine gender role discrepant contexts stressful. What Is Role Strain? Definition and Examples - ThoughtCo In the final sample, 122 (74.4%) completed all seven weekly questionnaires, 35 (21.3%) completed six weekly questionnaires, and 7 (4.3%) completed five weekly questionnaires. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 9, 8289. American Sociological Review, 77(4), 625647. (for reviews, see Pleck, 1981, 1995). Yet, the relative impact and specific outcomes of gender role discrepant situations should vary based on differences in womens investment in specific facets of femininity (Witt & Wood, 2010; Wood & Eagly, 2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.10.008, Sanchez, D. T., & Crocker, J. Role Strain vs. Role Conflict in Sociology | Examples & Differences By highlighting the importance of applying a person x context perspective when examining gender role discrepancy strain processes, the current research provides important insight into inconsistent and null effects observed in previous studies (e.g., Kosakowska-Berezecka et al., 2016; Mori et al., 1987; Munsch & Willer, 2012). (See the Online Supplement for details on the 24 items retained, and the 15 items removed for these studies). https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.1152, ONeil, J. M. (2008). The developmental social psychology of gender. Identifying the risk feminine discrepancy strain poses to women, particularly those higher in FGRS, may offer directions for interventions targeting womens wellbeing. The gender role strain paradigm and masculinity ideologies. - APA PsycNet Google Scholar. Estimates of sensitivity using intensive longitudinal methods (Bolger & Laurenceau, 2013) suggest that 165 participants assessed at 7 time points provides adequate statistical power to detect small effects (r=.10). Our analyses were not pre-registered. Yet, women face many pressures and expectations to possess feminine qualities, and experience reprisals when these expectations are not met (Bem, 1983; Bussey & Bandura, 1992; Egan & Perry, 2001; Raag & Rackliff, 1998; Rudman, 1998; Rudman & Glick, 2001). Participants ranged from 17 to 45years of age (M=20.81, SD=3.95). Gender role stress indexes the degree to which women and men experience stress in gender role discrepant contexts, such as when men fail to possess power or women fail to be nurturant or attractive (Eisler & Skidmore, 1987; Gillespie & Eisler, 1992). Even fewer studies have directly examined the effects of womens experiences of context-level feminine gender role discrepancy strain, and these studies have produced inconsistent results. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 17(3), 274. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000016, Leary, M. R., Gallagher, B., Fors, E., Buttermore, N., Baldwin, E., Kennedy, K., & Mills, A. Calibrating the sociometer: The relational contingencies of self-esteem. For example, men who are asked to complete feminine tasks, told they have been outperformed by women, or received feedback they are more like women than men, exhibit more hostile cognitions and aggressive behavior compared to control conditions (Bosson et al., 2009, 2012; Cohn et al., 2009; Vandello et al., 2008). Although fewer studies have investigated FGRS compared to MGRS, higher levels of FGRS have been associated with negative self-relevant outcomes relevant to feminine gender role expectations of attractiveness (e.g., eating disorders and body image issues; Martz et al., 1995; Mussap, 2007), or general failure to meet self-relevant social standards, such as depressed mood (Gillespie & Eisler, 1992) and shame and guilt (Efthim et al., 2001). Directly assessing feelings of femininity captures the core ingredient of gender role discrepancy straindecreases in feelings of femininity. Results indicated that racial identity attitudes were . The same scale used in Study 1 assessed FGRS and produced comparable descriptive statistics and reliabilities (see Table 1). https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000008317057, Orth, U., & Robins, R. W. (2014). Indeed, across both studies we found that women higher in FGRS consistently experienced lower self-esteem compared to women lower in FGRS, and women who felt less feminine on a given day felt lower self-esteem compared to days they felt more feminine. Participants completed a questionnaire assessing FGRS and MGRS, then reported on their feelings of femininity and self-esteem at the end of each day for 10days. Preschoolers awareness of social expectations of gender: Relationships to toy choices. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Change in gender-ideology, 19771996: The contributions of intracohort change and population turnover. Figure1 (right side) displays this predicted person x context interaction. Consistent with calls for this type of contextual application to further understanding of gender role strain (Deaux & Major, 1987; Eckes & Trautner, 2012; Levant & Powell, 2017; ONeil, 2008; Smiler, 2004; Whorley & Addis, 2006), this rare person x context application illustrates that person-level gender role strain is most likely to predict negative outcomes in relevant gender role discrepant situations (in this case, low relationship power), and that context-level strain will predict negative outcomes most strongly for people who have a greater sensitivity to gender role strain (i.e., for those high but not low in MGRS). Sex Roles, 27(11), 573607. volume87,pages 3551 (2022)Cite this article. Men & Masculinities 101: The Gender Role Strain Paradigm Given the pressures women face to adhere to traditional feminine gender roles, many women may be at risk for negative self-relevant outcomes when they experience feminine gender role discrepant contexts, such as decreases in self-esteem. Finally, I investigate how the three . The list of female gender roles includes how we play as children. (2009). In an initial in-person session, participants were provided detailed information about the study, gave informed consent, completed scales assessing FGRS and MGRS, and were given detailed instructions for completing a web-based daily sampling procedure for the following 10days. We conducted multilevel analyses to test the effects of FGRS (person-level discrepancy strain), the within-person associations of felt-femininity (context-level discrepancy strain), and the interaction between FGRS and felt-femininity (person x context discrepancy strain) on self-esteem. The current studies relied on a single face-valid item assessing womens felt-femininity. Indeed, a central prediction of MGRS theory is that men higher in MGRS should be most likely to exhibit negative outcomes when they feel they are failing to live up to gender role expectations (Eisler & Skidmore, 1987). Development of the feminine gender role stress scale: A cognitive-behavioral measure of stress, appraisal, and coping for women. For example, women may experience gender role discrepancy strain in situations involving a disagreement with a friend (failing to be nurturant), needing to act assertively (failing to be passive), being in a bad mood when interacting with others (failing to be communal), and gaining weight (failing to be attractive; Gillespie & Eisler, 1992). This face-valid assessment of felt-femininity is similar to prior assessments of masculine discrepancy strain during daily life (drops in felt-masculinity), which revealed the same links with aggressive behavior as those shown from experimental manipulations of context-level masculine discrepancy strain (i.e., threats to masculinity; Overall et al., 2016). Measures Package, 61(52), 18. https://doi.org/10.1037/t01038-000, Rudman, L. A. For example, children learn at a young age that there are distinct expectations for boys and girls. 1 Citations Metrics Abstract How gender role attitudes develop during adolescence, and how biological, social, and cognitive factors predict this development, remains a matter of debate. 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Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 8(4), 598616. A boy who is teased at school because he enjoys. The negative effects of gender role strain are mental and physical health problems for the individ-ual and within relationships (O'Neil, 2008, 2013; Pleck, 1995). (1987). Rerunning the primary analyses adding MGRS as a simultaneous predictor and moderator (see Table 3) revealed that there was no main effect of MGRS and no interaction effect between MGRS and daily femininity on self-esteem as there was for FGRS. The role of gender identity threat in perceptions of date rape and sexual coercion. Sociologist Erving Goffman. As shown in Table 2, within-person decreases in daily feelings of femininity were associated with women reporting lower self-esteem. Putting gender into context: An interactive model of gender-related behavior. Auguste G. Harrington. As no person can always embody these qualities, the potential for women to encounter gender role discrepant situations, and associated gender role discrepancy strain, is likely common. Similarly, we directly assessed a central outcome of gender role discrepancy strain. Women more sensitive to feminine gender role discrepancy (i.e., higher in FGRS) should also find negative self-evaluations in relevant domains more challenging, and thus feel less feminine. All predictor variables were entered simultaneously. Alternatively, women could be placed in situations in which they are required to contravene feminine norms, such as a situation where they must behave assertively, take control, or argue a point. All predictors were simultaneously modelled (i.e., all predictors were entered in one model). (PDF) Integrating General Strain Theory and the Gender Role Strain Self-promotion as a risk factor for women: The costs and benefits of counterstereotypical impression management. We aimed to recruit as large a sample as possible to match the sample size of Study 1 by running the current study for three academic semesters. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(2), 157. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.87.2.157, Rudman, L. A., & Glick, P. (2001). Gender identity. Prior research has shown that person-level differences in the propensity to experience feminine gender role strain (e.g., FGRS) are associated with outcomes related to internalized feelings of low self-worth (e.g., greater depressed mood, shame, and guilt; Efthim et al., 2001; Gillespie & Eisler, 1992), but the current results show these person-level effects occurred most strongly in contexts when women experience gender role discrepancy strain as indicated by daily and weekly decreases in feelings of femininity. Both higher FGRS and within-person decreases in daily/weekly felt-femininity were associated with lower self-esteem, but higher FGRS combined with daily/weekly decreases in felt-femininity predicted the lowest self-esteem (a person x context interaction). Precarious manhood and displays of physical aggression. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19(4), 493508. The present studies provide the first demonstration that person-level gender role discrepancy strainhigher FGRSand context-level gender role discrepancy strainlower felt-femininitycombine to predict lower self-esteem in womens daily and weekly life. University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand, Auguste G. Harrington,Nickola C. Overall&Jessica A. Maxwell, You can also search for this author in For instance, women could be told that they have scored low on a test of child-care skills (discrepant with nurturance expectations), are less attractive than the average woman (discrepant with attractiveness expectations), or are perceived as unfriendly or cold by a group of people (discrepant with communality expectations). When power shapes interpersonal behavior: Low relationship power predicts mens aggressive responses to low situational power. https://doi.org/10.1086/689814, Kosakowska-Berezecka, N., Besta, T., Adamska, K., Jakiewicz, M., Jurek, P., & Vandello, J. Role Strain in Sociology: Definition and Examples - Simply Psychology University Press. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14(3), 158162. Across two studies, higher FGRS (person-level discrepancy strain) and within-person decreases in daily (Study 1) and weekly (Study 2) felt-femininity (context-level discrepancy strain) predicted lower self-esteem, but higher FGRS combined with daily/weekly decreases in felt-femininity predicted the lowest self-esteem (person x context interaction). Precarious manhood. Participants were told that the study explores peoples thoughts, feelings and behavior within social interactions across their weekly life. American Psychological Association. How investment in gender ideals affects well-being: The role of external contingencies of self-worth. We focused our studies on FGRS, and we did not assess how important femininity was to each participants identity. Rather, only FGRS (and not MGRS) should interact with variations in daily/weekly felt-femininity to predict daily/weekly self-esteem. Here's how: It's thought that male gender role stress may prevent men from seeking out the help they need following the experience of a traumatic event, increasing the likelihood of developing PTSD. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483384269.n240, Raag, T., & Rackliff, C. L. (1998). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(3), 629. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.629, Rudman, L. A., & Fairchild, K. (2004). ),The psychology of men and masculinities (pp. The intraclass correlation for our main model was =.29, p<.001; only 29% of the variance in self-esteem reflected differences between people, necessitating multilevel modeling to assess within-person variation in weekly levels of self-esteem. By contrast, the null effects shown in experimental manipulations of context-level feminine gender role strain have often focused on more externalized reactions, such as anger and stereotype endorsement (e.g., Kosakowska-Berezecka et al., 2016; Munsch & Willer, 2012; Vescio et al., 2021). To be included in the sample, participants had to have completed 5 or more usable daily records. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 18(1), 62. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000036. However, rather than focusing on a single, narrow experience in the lab, we directly examined context-level discrepancy strain by assessing drops in womens felt-femininity and self-esteem within the ecologically valid context of womens daily and weekly lives. Examining both potential causal pathways is a good direction for future research and will provide further support for the importance of the within-person associations between feelings of femininity and self-esteem (and other self-relevant outcomes). Journal of Women & Aging, 12(34), 7797. These results illustrate the importance of considering how person-level predispositions and contextual experiences of gender-role discrepancy strain combine to influence self-relevant outcomes for women. Plecks theorizing fits with research highlighting how peoples self-esteem decreases in response to feedback that they have failed to adhere to valued social standards (Leary et al., 2003). Our primary analyses modeled the degree to which participants daily levels of self-esteem varied as a function of (a) feelings of femininity that day (person-centered), (b) FGRS (grand-mean centered), and (c) the interaction between daily felt-femininity and FGRS. (1992). Role strain happens when someone has multiple overlapping, incompatible roles, and thus taking on one role interferes with their performance in another. The results address three important gaps. In the current studies, we provide the first tests of whether between-person differences in FGRS (person-level discrepancy strain) and daily or weekly variation in felt-femininity (context-level discrepancy strain) combine to predict womens self-esteem. Such aggressive responses to masculine discrepancy strain are theorized to emerge as an overt demonstration of power and thus an attempt to restore felt-masculinity. Prior use of this scale in multiple studies has revealed similar means, standard deviations, and internal reliability to previous MGRS assessments (Harrington et al., 2021). Self-regulatory mechanisms governing gender development. The current research examines how person-level propensity to experience feminine gender-role discrepancy strainfeminine gender role stress (FGRS)and contextual experiences of discrepancy strainfeeling less feminine in daily or weekly lifecombine to undermine womens self-esteem. However, negative self-evaluations, especially in domains relevant to femininity, also should feedback to challenge feelings of femininity. (2017). Bosson, J. K., Vandello, J. Men are generally expected to be strong, aggressive, and bold. https://doi.org/10.1300/J056v08n01_02, Chang, V. T., Overall, N. C., Madden, H., & Low, R. S. (2018). Sociology defines a role as the expected behavior of a person who is occupying a position or status. Click the card to flip Intrarole conflict- women are emotional and express feelings but also need to be sensitive to needs of other Interrole conflict- role as student, daughter etc conflicting with role of gender Click the card to flip 1 / 69 Internal reliability was comparable to the original paper outlining development of the full scale (=.81). 022559). The role of restrictive emotionality, trait anger, and masculinity threat in mens perpetration of physical aggression. https://doi.org/10.1080/03630242.2014.996723, Robins, R. W., & Trzesniewski, K. H. (2005). Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29(1), 6377. One component of the self-system is gender-role strain (GRS; perceived discrepancy between actual self and gender-role norms). Moreover, the negative outcomes arising from these contextual experiences are likely to be stronger for women with greater propensity to experience feminine gender role discrepancy strain. In particular, we demonstrated that person-level propensity for experiencing discrepancy strain (i.e., FGRS) predicted the greatest decreases in self-esteem when women encountered context-level gender role discrepant situations (i.e., lower felt-femininity). Womens attractiveness contingent self-esteem, romantic rejection, and body dissatisfaction. There, he formulated the sex role strain paradigm (later . ), Handbook of individual differences (pp. Despite recent developments towards more egalitarian attitudes in Western society (Brewster & Padavic, 2000; Dorius & Firebaugh, 2010; Knight & Brinton, 2017), the current research suggests that young, educated Western women continue to face social expectations and pressures that place them at risk of experiencing gender role discrepancy strain. 1543). After signing up, participants were provided detailed information about the study and gave informed consent. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2010.0040, Eagly, A. H., Nater, C., Miller, D. I., Kaufmann, M., & Sczesny, S. (2020).
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