While our lower body has been modified for a bipedal gait, we are still able to swing from branches or monkey bars, or throw a fastball, all thanks to our mobile shoulder joint. African clade: A grouping that includes gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, humans, and their extinct relatives. Which primates have a Postorbital closure? Malagasy strepsirrhines are also unusual in that females are socially dominant. In contrast, grades are groupings that reflect levels of adaptation or overall similarity and not necessarily actual evolutionary relationships. The tarsier diet is considered faunivorous because it consists entirely of animal matter, making them the only primate not to eat any vegetation. They have flexible shoulders, but their arms and legs are about the same length, useful because they are quadrupedal when on the ground. In most primates, males dominate females because they are typically larger and exhibit greater aggression, but in lemur groups, males and females are usually the same size and females have priority access to resources over males. Mandrill males not only have much more vibrant coloration than mandrill females but also have larger canines and can weigh up to three times more (Setchell et al. Ischial callosities: A flattened area of the ischium on the pelvis over which calluses form; functioning as seat pads for sitting and resting atop branches. When males and females of a species do not exhibit significant sexual dimorphism. Boston: Springer. What is the full taxonomic classification of humans, and what are some of the traits we have of each of these categories? Dunbar, Robin I. M. 1998. Figure 5.4 Ha,ha,ha . Both the olecranon process and styloid process are long in quadrupedal animals who carry much of their weight on their forelimbs when traveling and who therefore need greater stability rather than flexibility in those joints. Primate Order Characteristics Term 1 / 9 Suborder Strepsirhini Click the card to flip Definition 1 / 9 Lemur group, Loris group -smaller brain -no postorbital closure -orbits with more lateral orientation -tapetum lucidum -unfused mandible -molars with high, pointy cusps -longer snout -moist rhinarium (nose) -split upper lip -toothcomb All but two genera of living haplorrhines are active during the day, so this group lacks the tapetum lucidum which is so useful to nocturnal species. Postorbital bars Explanation : Post orbitals bars - all living primates possess postorbital bar. You can recognize incisors because they often look like spatulas with a flat, blade-like surface. Old World monkeys, apes, and humans also have one fewer premolar than most other primates, giving us a dental formula of 2:1:2:3 (Figure 5.31). Primates are one of at least twenty Orders belonging to the Class Mammalia. Some primate taxa have more convergent eyes than others, so those primates need extra protection for their eyes. A grouping based on overall similarity in lifestyle, appearance, and behavior. Premolars and molars can be differentiated by the number of cusps that they have. What strikes me as significant is that, although most people do not know the difference between a monkey, an ape, and a lemur, they nonetheless recognize something in the animals as being similar to themselves. Gorilla males, like orangutan males, are about twice the size of female gorillas (Figure 5.43). B. The Three Wise Monkeys who see no evil, speak no evil, and hear no evil derive from Buddhist iconography of monkeys. Flat nose with rounded nostrils pointing to the side. Pessoa, Daniel Marques Almeida, Rafael Maia, Rafael Cavalcanti de Albuquerque Ajuz, Pedro Zurvaino Palmeiro Melo Rosa De Moraes, Maria Helena Constantino Spyrides, and Valdir Filgueiras Pessoa. Homology: When two or more taxa share characteristics because they inherited them from a common ancestor. Platyrrhines are also all highly arboreal, whereas many Old World monkeys and apes spend significant time on the ground. These can be real, casts, or images. Finally, non-human primates show a clear preference for tropical regions of the world. The largest teeth at the back of the mouth; used for chewing; in primates, these teeth usually have between three and five cusps. The number of genera in this group has been changing in recent years, but the taxa included can broadly be discussed as gibbons and siamangs. 2014). Figure 5.33 Superfamily Cercopithecoidea map original to Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology by Elyssa Ebding at GeoPlace, California State University, Chico is under a CC BY-NC 4.0 License. A trait that is useful for a wide range of tasks. Primates that have a postorbital bar as well as a complete bony wall behind the orbit (i.e., a fully enclosed orbit) have postorbital closure. Origin of Human Bipedalism: The KnuckleWalking Hypothesis Revisited. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 116 (S33): 70105. The many adaptations that humans possess which allow us to move in this way evolved after humans split from the Genus Pan. They are usually killed when encountered because it is believed that someone will die if an aye-aye points at them. 2014). Having a diet consisting primarily of gums and saps. Sensitive skin at the fingertips for sense of touch. One of the best parts of teaching anthropology for me is getting to spend time at zoos watching primates. In contrast, only one genus of cheek-pouch monkey lives in Asia, and all the rest of them in Africa. What people probably mean when they say monkey is actually primate, a term that refers to all organisms classified within the Order Primates and also the subject of this chapter. Vertical clinger leapers also tend to have elongated ankle bones, which serve as a lever to help them push off with their legs and leap to another branch. All strepsirrhines in Africa and Asia are nocturnal and solitary. The Order Primates is a diverse and fascinating group of animals united in sharing a suite of characteristicsvisual specialization, grasping hands and feet, large brains, and extended life historiesthat differentiates us from other groups of mammals. Some taxa have more teeth than others or different forms of teeth than others. To move bipedally, humans need many specialized adaptations that will be discussed in detail in later chapters. See Answer Cathemeral: Active throughout the 24-hour period. Malagasy strepsirrhines display a variety of activity patterns. 2007). Scally, Aylwyn, Julien Y. Dutheil, LaDeana W. Hillier, Gregory E. Jordan, Ian Goodhead, Javier Herrero, Asger Hobolth, et al. Figure 5.42b Orangutan -Zoologischer Garten Berlin-8a by David Arvidsson is used under a CC BY 2.0 License. The sense of smell is not as keen as other senses, such as vision, for diurnal (active during the day) primates. Both gibbons and siamangs live in pairs with very little sexual dimorphism, although males and females do differ in coloration in some species. Natal coat: Refers to the contrasting fur color of baby leaf monkeys compared to adults. The slow pace of this life history is likely related to why hominoids have decreased in diversity since they first evolved. Tarsiers also have some traits that are more like strepsirrhines and some that are unique. Opposable thumb or opposable big toe: Having thumbs and toes that go in a different direction from the rest of the fingers, allows for grasping with hands and feet. The term Order Primates dates back to 1758 when, in his tenth edition of Systema Naturae, Carolus Linnaeus put humans, simia (monkeys and apes), lemurs (lemurs and colugos), and some bats into one of eight groups of mammals. Brachiation involves swinging below branches by the hands (Figure 5.9). Unlike many animals, primates do not migrate. are spending more energy on vision and thus will have poorer smell (and a shorter snout). All of the traits discussed below are primitive traits, but strepsirrhines do have two key derived traits that evolved after they diverged from the haplorrhines. These include the gummivorous fork-marked lemurs as well as bamboo lemurs, who are able to metabolize the cyanide in bamboo. According to molecular estimates, tarsiers split from the other haplorrhines close to 70 million years ago, and platyrrhini split from catarrhini close to 46 million years ago (Pozzi et al. While primates are fascinating animals in their own right, we study non-human primates in anthropology with the ultimate goal of understanding more about our own biology and evolutionary history. You can hold a pen, grab a branch, peel a banana, or text your friends all thanks to your opposable thumbs. When trying to place primate species into specific taxonomic groups, we use a variety of dental characteristics, locomotor adaptations, and behavioral adaptations. 1 / 41 Human Click the card to flip Flashcards Learn Test Match Created by sabrinaproffitt Terms in this set (41) Skull with large braincase (wow, this one looks like me! A locomotor pattern in which animals are oriented upright while clinging to vertical branches, push off with hind legs, and land oriented upright on another vertical branch. Like all primates, strepsirrhine orbits (eye sockets) have a postorbital bar, a protective ring of bone created by a connection between the frontal and zygomatic bones. Tokyo: Springer. The most sexually dimorphic of all primates are mandrills. Figure 5.34 Silverleaf Monkey (Kuala Lumpur) by Andrea Lai from Auckland, New Zealand is used under a CC BY 2.0 License. A bony plate that provides protection to the side and back of the eye. Lastly, some taxa are primarily arboreal while others are more terrestrial. As a result, animals with greater orbital convergence will have a postorbital plate or postorbital closure in addition to the bar (Figure 5.1). (2 points) 2. In his research on the origins of anthropoids during the 1970s, F.S. Pentadactyly: Having five digits or fingers and toes. Primates are known to eat a wide range of plant parts, insects, gums, and, rarely, meat. Definition: taxa Plural of taxon, a taxonomic group such as species, genus, or family. A subarea of anthropology that studies the complexities of human-primate relationships in the modern environment. 2012). Ancient Egyptian deities and beliefs transformed over time, as did the role of hamadryas baboons. Figure 5.5 Four types of human teeth original to Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology by Mary Nelson is under a CC BY-NC 4.0 License. Our heavy reliance on vision is reflected in many areas of our anatomy and behavior. This is a terrestrial quadruped so the arms and legs are relatively long and the tail is shorter. This means that when we find fossil taxa that share derived traits for walking on two legs, we can conclude that they are likely more closely related to humans than to chimpanzees and bonobos. The sizes of canines vary across species and can often be sexually dimorphic, with male canines usually being larger than those of females. Finally, primate groups vary in their adaptations for different forms of locomotion, or how they move around. A clade is a grouping of organisms that reflect a branch of the evolutionary tree, a grouping based on relatedness. Color vision has also been suggested to be useful for detecting predators, especially big cats (Pessoa et al. Life history refers to the pace at which an organism grows, reproduces, ages, and so forth. Folivorous primates have broad molars with high, sharp cusps connected by shearing crests. Chapter 6 is entirely dedicated to primate behavior, so only broad differences related to taxonomic classification will be discussed here. The long-term relationships that primates form with others of their species lead to complex and fascinating social behaviors, which you will read about in Chapter 6. It has a very large brain compared to other strepsirrhines, which it fuels with a diet that includes birds eggs and other animal matter. Answer the following questions about the image below. Sagittal Crest Formation in Great Apes and Gibbons. Journal of Anatomy 230 (6): 820832. They also have one fewer molar than other platyrrhines, giving them a dental formula of 2:1:3:2. Vertical clinging and leaping: A locomotor pattern in which animals are oriented upright while clinging to vertical branches, push off with hind legs, and land oriented upright on another vertical branch. 2001. Lemur Traits and Madagascar Ecology: Coping With an Island Environment. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 110 (S29): 3172. In the Mayan creation story, the Popol Vuh, the hero brothers are actually a howler monkey and a spider monkey, who represent ancestors of humans in the story. An example of a clade would be a grouping that includes humans, chimpanzees, bonobos, and gorillas. An example of a grade would be placing orangutans, gorillas, bonobos, and chimpanzees into a group, and excluding humans. The author would very much like to thank the editors for the opportunity to contribute to this textbook, along with two anonymous reviewers who provided useful feedback on earlier drafts of this chapter. [Includes Duskyleafmonkey1 by Robertpollai, CC BY 3.0 AT; Male Bornean Orangutan Big Cheeks by Eric Kilby from Somerville, MA, USA, CC BY-SA 2.0.]. Trichromatic color vision is particularly useful to catarrhines, which are all diurnal. Fruits, Foliage and the Evolution of Primate Colour Vision. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 356 (1,407): 229283. Third edition. In the past, hominoids were tremendously diverse in both geography and adaptations. Tarsiiformes are also small, with most species weighing between 100 and 150 grams. Most of all, the author would like to thank all of the Introduction to Biological Anthropology students that she has had over the years who have listened to her lecture endlessly on these animals that she finds so fascinating and who have helped her to hone her pedagogy in a field that she loves. They range in body size from the smallest of all primates, the mouse lemur, some species of which weigh a little over an ounce (Figure 5.14), up to the largest of all strepsirrhines, the indri, which weighs up to about 20 pounds (Figure 5.17). At the wrist end of the ulna, hominoids have a short styloid process, which enables us to have very flexible wrists, a trait critical for swinging. Figure 5.41 Shout (373310729) by su neko is used under a CC BY-SA 2.0 License. Describe the major primate taxa using their key characteristics. In primates, grooming is an important social currency, through which individuals forge and maintain social bonds. Primates such as strepsirrhine possess postorbital bar which is formed as a result of contact in between the zygomatic bone and the frontal bone. Fuentes, Agustn, and Kimberley J. Hockings. Today about 350 species of primates (compared to, say, 2277 species of Rodentia or 260 species of Carnivora) 7 Figure 5.19 Strepsirrhines at a glance a derivative work original to Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology by Stephanie Etting is under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 License. Regions Based on Social Structure. Current Anthropology 37 (1): 87123. The torso, shoulders, and arms of hominoids have evolved to increase range of motion and flexibility (Figure 5.9). Both species are moderately sexually dimorphic, with males about 20% larger than females. Primates are also characterized by having long lifespans. Gummivore: Having a diet consisting primarily of gums and saps. Placental mammals internally gestate for a longer period of time and give birth to fairly well-developed young who are then nursed. CluttonBrock, T. H., and Paul H. Harvey. Clade relationships are determined using derived traits shared by groups of taxa as well as genetic similarities. Balolia, Katharine L., Christophe Soligo, and Bernard Wood. Hanuman is thought to be a guardian deity, and so local monkeys like Hanuman langurs and macaques are protected in India (Figure 5.37). Because of our close relationship, humans share many additional traits in common with Pan. There are clear similarities between humans and the other apes in our morphology and life history. In order to protect the sides of the eyes from the muscles we use for chewing, all primates have at least a postorbital bar, a bony ring around the outside of the eye (Figure 5.1). In New World monkeys, each X chromosome carries the genes for seeing one wavelength. Bunodont: Low, rounded cusps on the cheek teeth. The Suborder Strepsirrhini is divided into two groups: (1) the lemurs of Madagascar and (2) the lorises, pottos, and galagos of Africa and Asia. Figure 5.20 Suborders at a glance: This table summarizes the key differences between the two primate suborders. Primates are all in the slow lane of life history patterns. Figure 5.24 summarizes the unusual mix of traits seen in tarsiers. Figure 5.6c In order to derive energy from leaves, folivores have smaller incisors, high, sharp molar cusps connected by shearing crests and complex digestive tracts filled with specialized bacteria. Some primates will occasionally travel on two feet but do so awkwardly and never for long distances. Because of this, very often we find a lot of fossil jaws and teeth, and so we need to be able to learn as much as we can from those pieces. Our ability to manipulate objects is further enhanced by the flattened nails on the backs of our fingers and toes that we possess in the place of the claws and hooves that many other mammals have. Figure 5.37 Macaque India 4 by Thomas Schoch is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0 License. Figure 5.6b Insectivore characteristics original to Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology by Mary Nelson is under a CC BY-NC 4.0 License. Both living and extinct strepsirrhines lack a thin wall of bone behind the eye, referred to as postorbital closure, which is only seen in haplorhine primates. Primates who spend less energy on vision (less convergent eyes, poorer visual acuity, etc.) They are highly sexually dimorphic (Figure 5.42), with fully developed, flanged males being approximately twice the size of females. It is an interactive website where you can compare specific bones from different species of primates. Leaf monkeys are primarily folivores, with some species eating a significant amount of seeds. Figure 5.29 summarizes the key traits of platyrrhines relative to the other infraorders of Haplorrhini. As a result, animals with greater orbital convergence will have a postorbital plate orpostorbital closure in addition to the bar (Figure 5.1). Dichromats Detect Colour-Camouflaged Objects That Are Not Detected by Trichromats. Proceedings of the Royal Society London B: Biological Sciences 248 (1,323): 291295. This will become very apparent when we discuss the two suborders of primates, Strepsirrhini and Haplorrhini.When these two lineages diverged, strepsirrhines retained more primitive traits (those present in the ancestor of primates) and haplorrhines developed more derived traits (became more different from the ancestor of primates). 2014. This suggests that the evolution of the postorbital bar in primates represents an instantiation of a general principle identified by Cartmill that applies across all mammals: when the orbit and temporal fossa are not coplanar, movements in the temporal fossa are more likely to disturb the orbital contents and some kind of postorbital ossificatio. In this grouping, we exclude the orangutan, which is considered a member of the Asian clade of hominoids. It also provides insight into some of the challenges facing primate conservation efforts (see Appendix A: Primate Conservation). This means that there is no individual trait that you can use to instantly identify an animal as a primate; instead, you have to look for animals that possess a collection of traits. Smell. Humans, too, exhibit these same characteristics. Humans share over 96% of our DNA with gorillas (Scally et al. Infraorder Platyrrhini get their name from their distinctive nose shape. Tarsiers actually get their name because their ankle (tarsal) bones are elongated to provide a lever for vertical clinging and leaping. The bushmeat and pet trades make these animals valuable at the expense of many animals lives, and in some areas, non-human primates have become pests who raid crop fields and consume valuable foods. All members of this class share certain characteristics, including, among other things, having fur or hair, producing milk from mammary glands, and being warm-blooded. Semi-brachiation: A form of locomotion in which an organism swings below branches using a combination of forelimbs and prehensile tail. Heterodont: Having different types of teeth. Nater, Alexander, Maja P. Mattle-Greminger, Anton Nurcahyo, Matthew G. Nowak, Marc De Manuel, Tariq Desai, Colin Groves, et al. 9 Citations Part of the Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series book series (VERT) In the Age of Anthropoidea, the higher primates came to dominate primate evolution at least since the Oligocene and probably even before that. The other major religion in Japan is Buddhism, and monkeys play a role in symbolism of this religion as well. Figure 5.35 Proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus) male head by Charles J Sharp creator QS:P170,Q54800218 is used under a CC BY-SA 4.0 License. With regards to primate senses, primates with better vision (more convergent eyes, better visual acuity, etc.) Why does the field of anthropology, a field dedicated to the study of humans, include the study of non-human animals? Postorbital closure/plate: A bony plate that provides protection to the side and back of the eye. Bony projection at the elbow end of the ulna. Among all primate taxa, vision is the most developed in catarrhines. Figure 5.9 Brachiator original to Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology by Mary Nelson is under a CC BY-NC 4.0 License. The third form of locomotion seen in primates is brachiation, the way of moving you used if you played on monkey bars as a child. Animals that move in this way usually have legs and arms that are about the same length and typically have a tail for balance. One of the important goals of an introductory biological anthropology course is to teach you about your place in nature. Sunbathing hamadryas baboons led ancient Egyptians to associate them with Ra, the sun god, who was the son of Thoth. (E) Chimpanzee, showing opposable big toe. Tactile pads: Sensitive skin at the fingertips for sense of touch. Loris mothers will then bathe their young in this toxic saliva, thus making the babies unappealing to predators. When a species exhibits sex differences in morphology, behavior, hormones, and/or coloration. Figure 5.31 Platyrrhini vs. Catarrhini dentition a derivative work original to Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology by Stephanie Etting is under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 License. reduced rostrum - primates do not emphasize olfaction. Fovea: A depressed area in the retina at the back of the eye containing a concentration of cells that allow us to focus on objects very close to our face. Thus, all of the traits discussed below are considered derived traits. For example, all primates have body hair because we are mammals and all mammals share an ancestor hundreds of millions of years ago that had body hair. Primate Phylogenetic Relationships and Divergence Dates Inferred From Complete Mitochondrial Genomes. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 75: 165183. The Y-5 molar was present in the common ancestors of hominoids and cercopithecoids, thus telling us it is the more primitive molar pattern of the two. We have incisors, which we use for slicing; we have premolars and molars, which we use for grinding up our food; and we have canines, which most primates (not humans) use as weapons against predators and each other. We currently know of two exceptions to this pattern among platyrrhines. Figure 5.26 CARABLANCA panoramio by Manuel Velazquez is used under a CC BY 3.0 License. Lastly, teeth preserve really well in the fossil record. 1996. Suborder Haplorrhini is divided into three infraorders: Tarsiiformes, which includes the tarsiers of Asia; Platyrrhini, which includes the New World monkeys of Central and South America; and Catarrhini, a group that includes the Old World monkeys and apes of Asia and Africa, as well as humans. Semi-brachiators also use long prehensile tails as a third limb when swinging (Figure 5.10). Ethnoprimatology: A subarea of anthropology that studies the complexities of human-primate relationships in the modern environment. In primates, these teeth usually have one or two cusps. However, if we are comparing mammals to birds and fish, then body hair becomes a derived trait of mammals. Frugivore: Having a diet consisting primarily of fruit. To accomplish this, we not only consider how humans are different from other species but also examine the traits that unite us with the other primates, our similaritiesthat is our focus here. Some folivores have complex stomachs with multiple compartments, but all leaf eaters have large, long intestines and special gut bacteria that can break up cellulose. To view and compare these traits using photos of bones, check out the interactive skeletal websites listed under the Further Explorations section at the end of this chapter.
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